Adaptive autonomous agent with verbal learning

ABSTRACT

An autonomous adaptive agent which can learn verbal as well as nonverbal behavior. The primary object of the system is to optimize a primary value function over time through continuously learning how to behave in an environment (which may be physical or electronic). Inputs may include verbal advice or information from sources of varying reliability as well as direct or preprocessed environmental inputs. Desired agent behavior may include motor actions and verbal behavior which may constitute a system output (and which may also function “internally” to guide external actions. A further aspect involves an efficient “training” process by which the agent can be taught to utilize verbal advice and information along with environmental inputs.

RELATED INVENTIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/520,030 filed on Mar. 6, 2000 which is a divisional of Ser. No.09/143,909 filed on Aug. 31, 1998, which is a divisional of U.S. Pat.No. 5,802,506 filed on May 26, 1995 which are hereby incorporated byreference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates in general to artificial intelligencesystems and in particular to a new and useful system which builds uponartificial neural network designs and learning techniques with furtherprocesses to achieve verbal functions.

2. Relevant Background

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are well known, and are described ingeneral in U.S. Pat. No. 4,912,654 issued Mar. 27, 1990 to Wood (Neuralnetworks learning method) and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,222,194 issued Jun. 22,1993 to Nishimura (Neural network with modification of neuron weightsand reaction coefficient), both of which are incorporated herein byreference. ANNs are systems used to learn mappings from input vectors,X, to output vectors, Y. In a static and limited environment, adeveloper provides a training set—a database—that consists of arepresentative set of cases with sensor inputs (X) and correspondingdesired outputs (Y), such that the network can be trained to output thecorrect Y for each given input X, but is limited to the developer'sspecification of correct outputs for each case, and therefore may notsucceed in optimizing the outcomes to general users.

In the more general case, it is valuable or essential for the system tolearn to generate outputs so as to optimize the expected value of amathematical “Primary Value Function”, usually a net present expectedvalue of some function over time. It may also be essential to learn asequence of actions to optimize the function, rather than beingrestricted to a single optimal output at each moment (e.g., a robot mayhave to move away from a nearby object having a local maximum value, inorder to acquire an object having a larger, or global, maximum value).The preferred class of techniques meeting these requirements is adaptivecritics, described in Miller, Sutton, and Werbos, Eds., Neural networksfor control. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press (1990), and in Barto, A.,Reinforcement learning and adaptive critic methods. In D. A. White & D.Sofge (Eds.), Handbook of Intelligent Control: Neural, Fuzzy, andAdaptive Approaches. Van Nostrand (1992).

Connecting actual or simulated sensors and actual or simulated actuatorsto the inputs and outputs, respectively, of adaptive critics and relatedsystems, make complete adaptive autonomous agents. These agents are afocus of some researchers in robotics sometimes called“behavior-oriented artificial intelligence” as described in U.S. Pat.No. 5,124,918 and in Brooks, 1990, and Maes, 1993-4.

The advantages of these systems are that they are by definition capableof acting in real environments. With adaptive critics and relatedtechniques, a training set may either be constructed by the developed,or collected from actual historical data, or created by putting thesystem into contact with the actual application environment.

While ANN techniques have several major advantages (they learn ratherthan requiring programming, they can accept many forms of inputs, andcertain designs can perform mathematical optimization of a valuefunction) they can only learn from direct experience and not fromverbal/symbolic/codified knowledge which comprises the large majority ofavailable human knowledge.

Although ANNs have been used for manipulation of language, they have notbeen used for functional interaction with objects. See, for example(Davis, 1992); Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) (ANN taught to output thepast tense of verbs when given the present tense form); Elman (1992)(ANN taught to predict the next word in a sentence). The majority ofresearch attempts to assign a grammatical role for each word insentences. In this research, the values used in the training signals areprovided by the trainer rather than being derivable from the functionalvalue contributed by the verbal responses.

On the other hand, expert systems incorporate verbal knowledge,especially condition-action pairs or rules. However, the knowledge inmost potential application domains for intelligent systems cannot berepresented adequately by such rules. Moreover, traditional expertsystems have no capability to learn from experience to improveperformance. A further disadvantage of expert systems is the effortrequired to formulate the necessary rules. The overall architecturedesigns require so much processing that they have been far to slow tocontrol realistic sensorimotor systems for robotics.

To reduce the burden of formulating the rules for expert systems, anapproach typically called machine learning was developed. This approachconsists basically of logical inference from data to produce rules. Thisis a very restricted form of learning as compared with the more generaland powerful methods of ANNs.

While the potential value of combining the learning, representation, andoptimization of ANNs with verbal capabilities such as those of expertsystems and fuzzy logic is clear, prior attempts have achieved only verylimited functionality.

Hybrid designs contain both expert system and ANN subsystems, so theyare inherently complex, and have achieved only very limited results.See, for example, Caudill, M. (1991) Expert networks. Byte, 16(10),108-116.

The present invention draws from theoretical analyses regarding theproblems of functional language usage outlined in Verbal Behavior, by B.F. Skinner in 1957. The key assumption of Skinner's “radicalbehaviorist” theory is that verbal behavior is not fundamentallydifferent from nonverbal behavior. Linguistics theorists in general andconnectionist language researchers in particular have been aware ofSkinner's theory since its publication, but have consistently vehementlyrejected it as being erroneous or not applicable (Chomsky, 1959; Harris,1993; Pinker, 1995). The main criticisms are that the theory supposedlycould not produce the very rapid learning of language which is seen withhumans, that it could not account for the production of novel sequenceof speech, and in general that the “simple” concepts of operantconditioning could not account for the enormous complexity of language.The authors of the seminal volumes on neural networks, includinglanguage research, (McClelland, Rumelhart, et al., 1986) explicitlyreject the behavioral paradigm: “In this sense, our models must be seenas completely antithetical to the radical behaviorist program.” (p.121).

Certain ANN architectures, such as higher-order networks, have thepotential to permit rules to be programmed directly into networks. See,for example, Hutchison, W. R. & Stephens, K. R., Integration ofdistributed and symbolic knowledge representations, Proceedings of thefirst international conference on neural networks, 2, 395-398, IEEEPress. This can be accomplished by connecting the condition part of therule (as inputs) to the action part of the rule (as outputs). Most ANNarchitectures and algorithms are not compatible with such an approach.

The most common technique for training ANNs to follow rules has been toconstruct training sets whose mastery requires following the rules. TheANN may be allowed to make errors or it may be artificially forced tomake the correct response (Lin, 1991; Whitehead, 1991). As with directprogramming, the resulting system complies, but does not explicitlyfollow, the rules. There are a number of major disadvantages to trainingcompliance by examples:

a. Constructing the set of training examples is usually a significantadditional effort beyond formulating the rule; it must be done for everyrule.

b. It may be difficult or impossible to create a training set thatcontains the desired relationships while avoiding irrelevant relations.

c. It is especially difficult—even impossible in some networks—to traincorrect behavior where certain actions are almost always rewarded (e.g.,crossing railroad tracks, investing in real estate in previously solidmarkets), but on rare occasions have catastrophic results.

d. Many relations are so remote in time or space, or so weak inprobability that they will never be learned by direct experience of anindividual (e.g., avoiding chemicals that cause cancer years later). Ifthey are taught by overrepresenting them in the sample, the learningwill be inappropriate for optimization.

In both direct programming and training set techniques, the systemcomplies with the given rules, but does not learn the rule as a verbalstatement. Lack of explicit verbal content imposes a number of majordisadvantages on such systems.

A “rule-compliant” network cannot adequately state what it knows. Incertain types of networks the structure can be decoded, but a listing ofthe associations generally contains a large number of irrelevantrelations. Another approach (Gallant, 1988, 1993) is to determinepartial derivatives by testing the impact of manipulating an input on anoutput, but this is not practical for complex relations which aretypical of real world problems. Systems that cannot state theirknowledge cannot:

i. Explain or justify their actions.

ii. Teach another person or system.

iii. Learn from discussing their knowledge with other agents (human ormachine).

This weakness is very serious in any case, but especially in view of therapidly developing communications network in which computers areconnected, where the ability to converse verbally with other agentsopens up a vast potential not otherwise available.

An important process in human problem solving uses verbal behavior totransform a novel problem into a new problem or subproblems for whichsolutions are known (Donahoe & Palmer, 1994). For example, if the answerto the problem “23 times 117” is not immediately known, we “break down”the problem into subproblems for which we have answers (e.g., 3 times7). Networks without explicit verbal behavior cannot do such problemsolving. Even more demanding is “creative problem solving” where we mayhave to perform several tentative “verbal transformations” before evenrecognizing how to proceed.

Current neural network methods are handicapped by their lack of verbalbehavior, because the network is required to learn a complex task all atonce rather than decomposing it. For example, Minsky and Papert (1969)asserted that linear nets cannot learn the exclusive OR problem. On thecontrary, the Applicant has trained a linear network to perform thistask perfectly, using verbal behavior in the same manner as many humansactually solve it. First the agent learns the “OR” problem more typicalin the real world: when presented with the two input stimuli, the agentresponds to any positive stimulus with a positive output on the mainoutput. Then the agent is taught an additional verbal response: If bothstimuli are positive, the agent emits, in addition to the positive mainresponse, a response which functions like saying “both”. After saying“both”, in the next network cycle that verbal response is available asan additional input to itself, which suppresses the system's positiveresponse and strengthens a negative response. In general terms, theverbal capability of the system enables it to reduce the effectivedimensionality of the problem. Networks that can be taught these verbalresponses can learn to solve many problems much faster.

As described above, networks can be taught or programmed to comply withrules, which is only one simple kind of input-output. However, suchmethods do not work for any other of the myriad kinds of relations inthe world, such as: above, in, of, sister of, inside, subclass of,threatens, suggests, is the capital of, etc. ANN language research andknowledge-based systems that accommodate such relations have toexplicitly program their processing: they cannot learn new relationsfrom experience as can humans. This is a huge weakness.

Beyond being able to learn many kinds of relations is the challenge ofderiving some value from the knowledge. Except for the trivial case ofbeing able to repeat a relational statement, learning it will not beuseful unless the agent has also learned how to combine the statementwith other relational statements, and ultimately to actions. An agentmust explicitly learn how to combine X>Y and Y=Z to conclude that X>Z;and that X>Y and Y<Z does not lead to any conclusion about the relationof X and Y. This essential learning has also not been done with neuralnetworks.

Jameson (1993) has proved that certain kinds of problems cannot besolved without the use of models or representations of the world. Mostneural network architectures have no model component and thereforecannot solve such problems. Those that do (e.g., White & Sofge, 1992)require that the model be specified to a significant (and oftenimpossible) degree by the system developer. Verbal behavior permits asystem to construct such models.

Obviously, some sources of information are more reliable than others,such that information should be differentially learned, and thereafterdifferentially relied upon. ANNs are programmed or trained to complywith all advice, or if differential strengths are used, they must begiven by the developer rather than learned. If a new statement were thengiven from a known source, the system should be able to generalizeregarding the reliability of the statement from the reliability ofprevious statements from that source; but existing methods would nothandle that case. This capability should go beyond considering thesource: Take Einstein's advice about physics but not about economics.

Apart from the differential reliability of statements, they havedifferent degrees of value. It may be perfectly reliable that there are743 cats in Chanute, Kans., but the value of this knowledge is so lowthat an agent should not waste resources learning it.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Briefly stated the invention involves an autonomous adaptive agent whichcan learn verbal as well as nonverbal behavior. The primary object ofthe system is to optimize a primary value function over time throughcontinuously learning how to behave in an environment (which may bephysical or electronic). Inputs may include verbal advice or informationfrom sources of varying reliability as well as direct or preprocessedenvironmental inputs. Desired agent behavior may include motor actionsas well as verbal behavior. In addition to being a possible systemoutput, verbal behavior may function “internally” to guide externalactions. A principal novelty of the invention is an efficient “training”process by which the agent can be taught to utilize verbal advice andinformation along with environmental inputs. A further object of thesystem is to restate verbal statements it has learned when prompted. Afurther object of the system is to solve novel problems.

Advantages of the system in accordance with the present invention overprior art include:

1. The system can learn to use verbal advice and other verbalinformation without the need for constructing sets of training examples.This ability saves the developer a large amount of work and increasesthe likelihood of achieving desired results.

2. The system can learn to perform correct behavior even where certainactions are almost always rewarded, but on rare occasions havecatastrophic results.

3. The system can learn relations that are so remote in time or space,or so weak in probability that they will never be learned by directexperience of an individual.

4. Unlike ANNs trained by examples, the system can meet the requirementof many applications to learn a constant series of new verbal inputs anduse them immediately to perform dictated tasks correctly the first time.

5. The system can overcome the inherent tendency of most adaptivesystems (including humans) to be drawn to smaller immediate consequencesover larger delayed consequences.

6. The system combines talking and listening in the same device, ratherthan requiring separate language understanding and production systems.

7. The system can use verbal behavior to transform a novel problem intoa new problem or subproblems for which solutions are known.

8. The system can automatically learn to learn and depend more oninformation from reliable sources of information, or even morespecifically to discriminate by domain. Apart from the differentialreliability of statements, it can differentially learn statements whichhave more value for action. Relative value can also be the basis forresolving conflicts between rules of differing importance.

9. The system can repeat the verbal knowledge it has learned.

10. When the Primary Value states are connected as inputs to the system,the system can learn to adjust its behavior continuously as a functionof its current goals/needs/state so as to optimize its Primary ValueFunction over time, while also incorporating information aboutenvironmental opportunities and spatiotemporal distribution of PrimaryValues.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an architecture suitable forimplementing the invention.

FIG. 2 is an expanded diagram of input nodes from FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a flow chart of dependencies among the core trainingprocesses.

FIG. 4 is a flow chart of the learning process for the system in FIG. 1.

FIG. 5 is a flow chart of a process for training a minimal repertoire.

FIG. 6 is a flow chart of a training process for various behaviorsequences listed in Table 1.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Referring to FIG. 1, a suitable architecture for implementing theinvention is described. Each element can be implemented in hardware orsoftware (i.e., the system can be a freestanding robot or an electronicagent in a computer). Sensors (1) acquire information and convert itinto a form appropriate for input to Network Stimuli (2). Sensors maycomprise Recurrent internal connections (1A) which sense the system'sown previous outputs on a one-to-one basis or alternatively externalsensors which detect system actions (FIG. 1 shows direct internalconnections, the preferred embodiment). Alternatively, sensors could beconnected to intermediate “hidden” nodes in the network. At a minimum,the sensor directs at least whether the response was executed or not,but if internal connections are used, the input can also detect anabsolute or relative measure of value for unexecuted responses, if suchinformation is essential or valuable for the system's desiredperformance. Sensors may also comprise Proprioceptive sensors (1B) todetect states of the agent's body, if required by the kinds of tasksdesired for the agent (e.g., the position of the agent's arm). Sensorsmay also comprise External sensors (1C) such as inputs from light orsound sensors, which may be preprocessed (e.g. from an electronic speechanalysis system or Fourier analyzer; raw shapes in letters or recognizeddiscrete letters). The external information may come from sources in a3-D environment or from a pure electronic environment, such as the valuein a database or from an Internet connection. This set of externalsensors should include sensors to indicate current receipt of PrimaryValues from the environment where this information is required orvaluable for the system's actions. Sensors may also comprise a sensorfor each Primary Value in the system (1D), which senses the currentaccumulation of the primary value or other measure from which change canbe detected. Examples include the battery charge level, money in anaccount, or number in a counter.

Sensors (1) are connected to Input or stimulus nodes (2) within thenetwork, which are activated by signals from the sensors (1) and connectto other nodes within the network. Each sensor dimension typicallyconnects to more than one input node. For example, a proprioceptive armposition sensor might be connected to three input nodes: one for arm up,one for arm down, and one for arm half-way between. In the case ofelectronic character (ASCII) input, there might be an input node foreach possible ASCII value.

To maintain information about inputs beyond the immediate presentation,“lagged” nodes 2A and, optionally, “decaying” nodes 2B are used. FIG. 2shows a larger scale view of input nodes. The sensor node is connectedto the two types of input nodes.

Lagged nodes (2A) are a mechanism for inputting the past states of aninput node. This kind of general mechanism is well-known. A range ofoptions are discussed in Elman (1992). In the preferred embodiment, eachsensor 1 is connected to a series of “lagged input nodes 2A.” Eachlagged input node 2A is activated by the state of the sensor 1 at theprevious time step (to its left in FIG. 2). There may be between zeroand a small number of lagged inputs, typically between 1 and 5.

Optionally, each sensor 1 may also be connected to a Decaying input node(2B) which is activated by the associated sensor 1 and by its own priorstate, in such a way that if the sensor 1 is active the decaying node 2Bwill be activated, but if the sensor 1 is inactive the decaying node 2Bwill decrease its activation level each time step. Various functions arepossible, but a typical decay function isNewActivation=PriorActivation*0.7, with an activation of 0 after thelevel drops below a threshold such as 0.1. This kind of mechanism isalso well-known in the neural network field.

Output or response nodes (3) receive the value from the networkactivations. In the simplest design with wide applicability, thehighest-value output node 3 activates its corresponding Actuator 4(“winner-take-all”). Optionally, more than one output node 3 at once mayactivate Actuator nodes 4: nodes 3 with values above a threshold, or thehighest-valued node 3 within each mutually-incompatible set (e.g., liftarm and lower arm).

Output nodes (3) may be connected to any type of actuator 4, including amotor, printer, video display, modem, sound or speech production system,or even to no external actuator (but still with connections to recurrentinputs 1A above). Actuators 4 must be adequate for performing thesystem's desired external behavior. Outputs 3 should also include verbalresponses necessary for the system's “internal” processes, if these arenot also in the former set. For example, a robot may only be required toperform motor movements but will need some kind of verbal outputs tolearn any verbal behaviors required for controlling the movements.

Neural network (5) may be implemented in hardware or software. Manynetwork architectures (or equivalent data structures) would be adequate,provided they accept a variety of input types and produce a set ofnumerical outputs, and that the structure is amenable to an adaptivecritic or reinforcement learning algorithm in the general sensedescribed by Barto (1992). Higher-order nets (Giles & Maxwell, 1987)which include direct input-output connections are relatively morefeasible for this device than in mainstream neural network applicationsdue to their reduced need for hidden nodes (5A). In general, networkswith direct connections are far preferable given their much fasterlearning rates and reduced computation and storage needs. It will oftenbe advantageous to make use of a mechanism for adding hidden nodes asnecessary, as described, for example, by Fahner & Eckmiller (1994) andRedding, Kowalczyk, & Downs (1993). The techniques for neural networkimplementations are well known and described in White & Sofge (1992),and for higher-order networks see Giles & Maxwell (1987).

A plurality of Primary Values (6) is stored in storage means suitablefor the particular system; these values will be referenced in thesystem's Primary Value Function (7). Examples include batteries for arobot to store electrical charge, a tank for water or fuel, a holder formoney, a counter to store abstract units of value such as points.Exceptions to this requirement may be Primary Values whosespecifications do not require accumulation; e.g. “pain” from touchingcertain sensors. In a robotic system, the depletion of stored PrimaryValues 6 (e.g., fuel, water) will occur automatically; in a simulatedsystem, this depletion must be programmed or included in the PrimaryValue 6 amounts. It may be advantageous in simulated systems to programa “metabolism” process to deplete specified Primary Values 6 each timestep in addition to the variable action-dependent depletions (e.g.,motor responses use more energy than speaking; some energy and otherPrimary Values 6 are usually depleted in each time step independent ofthe selected actions).

Primary Value Function means (7) generates a single quantity applied tovalue change sensor 8A for any set of Primary Value inputs.

Change Sensors (8) output the amount by which its input changes in onetime step, and comprise Change Sensor (8A) for the Primary ValueFunction and Change Sensor (8B) for the Situation Value=value of themaximum valued Output node (or a function of multiple Outputs if thesystem permits such).

Summator (9) outputs the sum of its inputs.

Preferably, the learning process (10) would be of the adaptive criticclass (Barto, 1992; Miller, Sutton, & Werbos, 1990), implemented inhardware or software. Learning modifies the network connections andoccurs in each time step. The system processes sensory input, responds,and learns in a series of discrete time steps. The algorithm must beproperly matched with the other elements of the system, using techniqueswell-known in the art.

The learning should take place each input-output-evaluation cycle. Thelearning may modify only connections which were just active or followingSutton's (1984) lambda procedure, may modify previously-activeconnections to a lesser extent.

FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of a suitable behavior and learning algorithmfor a network such as in FIG. 1 for use with the present invention. Thenetwork performs the following steps:

1 Get values and activations of inputs, by reading sensors (e.g.,sensors 1A, 1B, and 1C in FIG. 1) in a robot or by calculation in asimulation.

2 Calculate input node activations in a given range, typicallynormalized to 0 to 1, by linear interpolation between nodes multipliedby input activation. If the input value falls between the values of twoinput nodes for an input dimension, both are activated in proportion totheir proximity to the input value by linear interpolation. For example,suppose an input dimension for calories-received had 4 input nodes forthe values of 0, 2, 4, and 8, respectively. If 3.5 calories werereceived, this value is between the second and third input nodes(between 2 and 4 calories). By linear interpolation, node 2 is activated0.25, node 3 is activated 0.75, and nodes 1 and 4 are activated 0. Asanother example, suppose an input dimension for ASCII characters had 4input nodes for the values of 65, 66, 67, and 68, respectively[characters A, B, C, D]. If the input had a value of 66, node 2 would beactivated 1.0 and the other nodes would be activated 0. Each node isthen multiplied by the input activation. For example, if the ASCII inputin the second example had an input activation level of 0.6 [e.g., afuzzy B], then node 2 would have an activation of 1.0*0.6=0.6. If theinput activation in example 1 was 0.8, node 2 would have an activationof 0.2 and node 3 would have an activation of 0.6.

3 Collect any primary values in the environment (e.g., calories, points)from inputs 1D.

4 Calculate the new value of a Primary Value Function (PVF), givenchanged Primary Value levels.

5 Calculate the change in value of the PVF (i.e., new value minus oldvalue).

6 Fire the network by accumulating, for each response, for allconnections to the response, the sum of the input node activation timesthe value of the connection between the input node-and the response.

7 Select the maximum valued response. Set the Situation Value to itsvalue.

8 Calculate the change in Situation Value (i.e., new value minus oldvalue).

9 Calculate the learning signal=change in PVF+change in Situation Value.I.e., sum the results from steps 5 and 8 in summator 9 of FIG. 1.

10 Apply the learning algorithm to determine a new maximum valuedresponse. A simple but effective algorithm is:

-   -   Learning rate is a system parameter between 0 and 1, typically        approximately 0.25.    -   TotActiv=Sum of all activations for all input nodes connected to        this response.    -   Momentum=previous momentum for this connection*MoMult, where        MoMult=1.15 if the sign of the learning signal is the same as        its sign the last time this connection learned; else=0.7.        However, constrain Momentum to the range (0.2, 5).

Set each new connection weight=previous connection weight+(learningsignal*Learning rate*Momentum*activation of this input/TotActiv)

11 Refire the network to redetermine for the maximum-valued responsebecause its value may have changed from step 10.

12 Select the new maximum-valued response.

13 Fire the selected actuators 4 for the maximum-valued response. E.g.,lift the robot arm or simulate saying the letter “A”. If the system is arobot, the primary values 6 will be depleted automatically (e.g., thebattery will be discharged by the movement), but in a simulated systemthe change in primary values 6 programmed for the maximum-valuedresponse must be tallied in the counters.

Training the ANN proceeds as follows.

The initial “empty” state of the neural network must next be modified inthe agent to teach it verbal behavior efficiently and enable it tocontinue learning in an efficient way. Adaptive systems can learn manythings from simply putting them into an environment and letting naturalfeedback work. However, for complex behaviors such as those that are theobjects of this system, unsupplemented natural feedback is extremelyinefficient. This “training” process does not preclude also makingdirect modifications to network connections, but as a practical mattersuch direct modification will rarely be necessary or advantageous.

The training process may be conducted manually by a skilled humanfollowing these steps, but it is feasible and may be preferable toutilize computer-based training technology, as in the preferredembodiment.

After a device has been modified to achieve the user's specifications,it will often be possible to make copies of the trained system in orderto avoid repeating the training process for each replica—this isespecially feasible in systems implemented predominantly in software.

FIG. 3 shows the process for modifying the initial state of the systemto achieve its objects in a particular application. As indicated bylines showing dependencies: each of training processes 302, 303, and 304utilizes “prompts”, such as showing “A” to get the system to say “A”.Those dependent processes cannot be done until that specific “minimalrepertoire” has been trained in Process 1; i.e., a repertoire withvisual character stimuli and vocal character responses. Processes 302,303, and 304 in parallel boxes in the path may be performed repeatedlyin any order for new content, but the trained device indicated in state305 will only follow rules for which its component tacts, pliance, andintraverbals have been previously trained in Processes 302, 303, and304, respectively. Processes in step 306 enable more advanced verbalfunctioning in state 307, such as logical reasoning combining more thanone statement.

Process 1. The central challenge in training desired system behavior isto get the system to perform the desired outputs/responses at nodes 3 inFIG. 1 when certain input patterns are presented on input nodes 1A-1C inFIG. 1, so that the connections can be strengthened by then presentingpositive consequences (“reinforcement”). The trainer generally hascontrol over presenting desired input patterns to nodes 1B-1C as well asappropriate consequences after the responses, but getting the system todo the correct response at the desired moment is not under the trainer'sdirect control. One approach that has been successfully used in priorart is to “artificially” intervene in the system's control loop to forcethe desired response to be emitted, rather than the highest-valuedresponse, if different. One disadvantage of this approach is that errorsduring training are often essential for suppressing undesiredconnections. The trainer can force erroneous responses to occur, but itis extremely difficult to specify which errors to program such that thesystem will learn everything it needs to perform correctly when it must“make its own choices.” The second disadvantage is that it requires morework and a more complicated system design. Therefore, while forcingresponses is not incompatible with the invention described here, it willrarely be advantageous (as compared with the new process below).

The recommended training Process provides an effective alternative,using “minimal repertoires”, a general strategy suggested by Skinner(1957, pp. 61 ff.). The object of Process 1 is to establish one-to-onemappings of inputs to outputs such that the trainer can subsequentlyevoke any desired response by presenting the corresponding stimulus.

The first step is construction of a list of minimal response elementssuch that any performance that will be required from the system can beconstructed by combining such elements. The simplest approach, whichwill very often be adequate, is simply to use the list of networkoutputs 3. Then a stimulus is specified for each of the responses inthis list. Usually there will be a conventional or natural stimulus foreach response, such as presentation of a visual stimulus “A” on externalinputs 1C paired with a response outputting the letter “A”, or a spokenstimulus “Back” paired with the response of moving backwards. More thanone such set is possible and often essential (e.g., visual alphabet tospoken alphabet, spoken alphabet to spoken alphabet).

As shown in the flowchart of FIG. 5, this may be accomplished usingProcess 1, which comprises the following steps.

501. A first stimulus response pair is selected; if there is any knownhierarchy of response values in the initial network, it is mostefficient to proceed from the highest-valued to lowest. Often a pairwill be a simple pair (e.g., stimulus of see “A”, response to say A).However, if the pair is a population of examples, sample from thepopulation. An example of the latter would be where the inputs are humanspeech sounds processed by a sound analyzer, where the analyzer inputswill vary from case to case (different pronunciations of “A”).

502. Present the first stimulus.

503. If the response is correct, go to step 504; if incorrect, return tostep 502. Note that even if no consequence is presented after an error,the connections to the erroneous response will generally be weakened bythe learning algorithm due to the cost of the response, which should bea positive value. Alternatively, a small negative value could bedelivered.

504. The trainer or CBT should deliver a positively valued consequence(“reinforcer”) with value greater than the response cost by a multiplierof approximately 1.5.

505. Determine if the response of the current pair been performedcorrectly approximately 3 times. Note that this criterion must beincreased where the stimulus is sampled from a variable population asdiscussed in step 501. If no, go to step 501 to sample a different pair;if yes, proceed to step 506.

506. Select or sample a new pair.

507. Present the stimulus of the new pair and let the system respondapproximately twice. As a result of the previous reinforcement of otherresponse(s), the system will predictably be wrong each time. Noconsequence is necessary.

508. The training process could again repeatedly present the newstimulus until the correct response was emitted (as with the firstpair), but the result of such a strategy would be that before thecorrect response occurred, the previously-learned responses would be soweakened that it would be difficult to get them to be performed againlater. Instead, randomly select approximately two previously-learnedpairs, present their stimuli, and reinforce correct responses tostrengthen the responses again.

509. Present the new stimulus again a larger number of times(approximately 4) and permit erroneous responses.

510. Present stimuli of approximately 4 randomly-sampledpreviously-learned pairs and reinforce correct responses each time.

511. Continue presenting the new stimulus until the correct responseoccurs and is reinforced. Note that logic corresponding to steps 502through 504 is summarized in box 511 of FIG. 5 to simplify the diagram.

512. Determine if the new response been done correctly approximately 3times. If no, go to 513, if yes, go to 514.

513. If the stimulus is from a population (see #1 above), sample a newelement from the population of this pair. Otherwise, keep the currentstimulus.

514. Present the new pair and previously-learned pairs in random orderuntil a total of approximately 10 correct responses have been performed.

515. If there are more pairs to learn, go to 506, otherwise stop.

Note that in many cases it is possible to directly program connectionvalues which implement a reasonable minimal repertoire, as discussedpreviously. This is generally feasible only when using a localized typeof network such as the preferred high-order net, and where therepertoire is a one-to-one mapping (e.g., ASCII “A” input to “A” output,not when inputting a set of sound features to evoke “A”). Even wherepossible, however, direct programming is not usually recommended forreasons discussed above.

The training in Process 1 shown in FIG. 5 changes the system in such away that it will be possible to apply some useful ideas from thepractice of behavioral training with animals and humans whichdramatically increase the efficiency of training compared with “trialand error.” These training ideas differ from the prior art in that theypermit the system to “imitate” the trainer; almost all cognitivescientists assume that imitation is an innate ability of higher livingorganisms—but not ANNs—which cannot be trained. Contrary to that belief,Process 1 trains an extremely useful form of imitation which enablessubsequent use of efficient modes of instruction with ANNs.

Applicant was able to implement the invention using a Texas Instruments486/25 PC, running DOS (TM) 6.22, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 (TM) andVisual Smalltalk (TM) Version 3.0 from Digitalk. Using a trainingspecification following the flowchart in FIG. 5, an autonomous adaptiveagent (ANN) of the architecture in FIG. 1 was trained in a minimalrepertoire consisting of stimuli of simulated recognized spoken ASCIIcharacters (A, B, C, F, G, I, M, S, T, U, Y) with simulated responses ofmatching ASCII characters, plus stimuli of simulated visual characters +and − in the center of a visual presentation field matched withresponses of simulated movements forward and backward, respectively. Theagent learned all responses to a criterion of no errors after the trialsspecified in the algorithm were completed.

The training in Process 1 allows novel training techniques.

The first such technique is referred to as “prompt and fade”. The objectof training is almost always to establish patterns of connectionsbetween stimuli and responses with appropriate values. In most cases ofverbal behavior as well as much other behavior, the object of trainingis not a single response but a particular sequence of responses, such asthe letters or sounds in a word. To accomplish that, the trainer (whichmay include computer based training) can first present the targetstimuli, then present the sequence of “prompts” for the correctresponses for that case. The prompts consist of the stimuli from aminimal repertoire trained in Process 1 to evoke the desired responses.For example, if a minimal repertoire was trained with visualpresentation of letters and printed letter responses, then the trainercould present a red object followed by prompts consisting of a visual“R” then a visual “E” then a visual “D”. If Process 1 was donecorrectly, the system will output the sequence of responses “R”, “E”,“D”. The trainer should “reward” correct responses by deliveringreinforcers (Primary Values). As the responses are learned, theintensity of the prompts should then be gradually reduced (“faded”),such as making them less visible, weaker, fuzzier, etc. This is done to“transfer” the control of the responses from the connections with theprompt stimuli to the connections with the stimuli which ultimatelyshould evoke the response (e.g., the redness). Prompting and fading canbe a very efficient training procedure.

Even if the system repeatedly performs the correct response to eachstimulus and receives reinforcers, the system will not learn (i.e.,develop connections from the desired stimuli to the correct responses totransfer control from the prompt stimuli) if the quantity of reinforcersis the same as used during training of the minimal repertoire. Inpsychological research (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972) this failure to learnis known as “blocking”. A strategy based on the Rescorla and Wagnerequations to overcome blocking is to set the reinforcer amount duringinstruction to a higher level than that used in previous training(higher by some multiplier such as 1.5). Fading the prompts has theeffect of reducing the relative value of the prompted responses. Thisresult produces two remarkably dynamic new quantitative effects whentraining a sequence of responses:

-   -   a. The reduced value of the current response will reduce the        “situation value change” component of reinforcement for the        prior response in the training sequence. The amount of external        reinforcement delivered must therefore be increased to overcome        this reduction.    -   b. An effect in the opposite direction is that the reduced value        of the correct response when the prompt stimulus is faded        increases the value of transition to the next response. This        effect permits a reduction in the amount of external        reinforcement for the current response while still producing        learning.

The most important goal during “prompt and fade” instruction is thetransfer of stimulus control, described at the beginning of thisdiscussion. Therefore a general rule is to fade the prompts as quicklyas possible while maintaining an adequate level of accuracy. Because thesystem learns many irrelevant associations when reinforcement occurs,errors are unavoidable and their punishment is a necessary part ofdiscriminating correct connections. Therefore the strategy here is notto avoid all errors, but to permit those errors which consist of otherresponses within the current sequence being trained. If a response isemitted other than one in the current sequence, the prompt should bestrengthened to a level which evokes one of the responses in thesequence. Preferably this adjustment should be made by stopping thesystem immediately and refiring the network with a stronger prompt,without leaving any trace of the erroneous response.

If the prompt cannot be changed “on the fly”, then the training shouldbe redone with a new agent. With most agents implemented in software,including the preferred embodiment, the state of the agent can becaptured and stored at various points during training so that thetraining need only be restarted from the most recent saved state.

Efficient training depends on the agent receiving a moderately positivereinforcement following correct responses and a net negative consequencefollowing errors. Given the constantly shifting recurrent stimulation,fading of prompts, fading of reinforcement, and the complex effects oftransition values 10, it is extremely difficult to maintain anear-optimal training signal. As contrasted with prior animal and humantraining, the trainer of a computer agent has access to information frominside the system which should be used to increase efficiency oftraining. The most important information is a total learning signalvalue, which can be monitored so as to set external reinforcement valuesto maintain appropriately-valued learning signals.

Real-world environments typically do not provide rewards until somebehavior of value has been performed (i.e., actuators 4 in FIG. 1perform), which usually involves performing at least one entire sequenceof responses. The value of doing each response in the sequence shouldsomehow be maintained by external value received only after doing theentire sequence. If no external value is received for an intermediateresponse, the reinforcement must come from situation transition value(re 8B in system description). That requires that network connectionvalues should be established such that for each response in the sequenceexcept the last, the transition value from the situation of thatresponse to the next will be at least equal to the cost of thatresponse. If the network transition values do not at least equal thecost of each intermediate response before the last one, those responseswill weaken each time and the system's “knowledge” and performance willquickly degrade. Note that widely used supervised learning procedures(Hinton & Becker, 1992) will not produce this essential result, so thenetwork produced would not be able to continue in learning mode in theapplication environment. That is unacceptable for most applications ofinterest.

Adaptive critic networks are capable of learning such sets of weightswhen reinforced only by value received at the end of the sequence.However, neither the prior art for training adaptive critic networks northe general human training literature provides a procedure applicable toANNs to train a sequence of responses, using prompts which are fadedduring training, where at the end of training reinforcement is deliveredonly at the end. The prior art with adaptive critics has generallydelivered reinforcers only after the last response in the sequence, andover many trials the value “backs up” to prior responses by thesituation transition process. Where that approach is used with livingorganisms, the last response is taught and reinforced first and earlierresponses are added incrementally to the front of the sequence in latercycles as the transition value builds up; this procedure is called“backward chaining”. While this procedure may be used, it is very slownot only because of the large number of cycles necessary but alsobecause when earlier responses in the sequence are omitted, noconnections can be learned between doing that response (as a recurrentstimulus) and the later responses. The general strategy of the presentinvention is to repeatedly prompt the entire sequence of responses, andto deliver a pattern of external reinforcers after more than one of theintermediate responses in the sequence during the acquisition phase,while simultaneously fading the prompts as quickly as possible. Theobject thereby is to build up all the desired response values quickly,then to fade the external reinforcers starting with the ones early inthe chain. At the end of this training, each response in the statementwill be maintained by a reinforcer delivered at the end of the sequenceonly. The algorithm will cover most cases, but given the complexity ofthe dynamic training situations, it is possible that some exceptions mayarise for which adjustments may be necessary. For example, after asequence has been trained, less intermediate reinforcement will benecessary when adding one or more new responses to the beginning or endof the sequence. In such a case, the more basic rules of the strategyapply, that is, to be sure correct responses receive a net positivelearning signal and incorrect ones receive a negative signal, whilefading prompts and external reinforcement to intermediate responses inthe sequence.

Referring to FIG. 6, the procedure involves the following steps.

Step 601. Set the reinforcer value to be delivered to the last responseof the sequence to a value (call it “End Reinforcer”) greater than thesum of response costs of the entire response sequence. An efficient EndReinforcer should be approximately 1.5 times the total of responsecosts.

Step 602. Set reinforcer values for other responses in the sequence. Adefault heuristic is to set the value for all responses except the firstto End Reinforcer and set the value of the first response to its costtimes 1.5. At no time should any response in the sequence be followed bya reinforcement value higher than the End Reinforcer value.

Step 603. Set initial prompt strengths for all responses. Default isfull strength (1.0), but can be set lower if prompts have highlydiscriminated network connections to responses.

Step 604. Set N, the index of the response in the sequence, to 1.

Step 605. Check whether the learning criterion has been met. Thiscriterion is that all responses in the last sequence performed by theagent were correct and each received a nonnegative net learning signalwhen the only external reinforcer delivered was at the end; further thatno prompt is given for any trained response. Note that logic dictates inthe case of nondependent responses in intraverbal chains that there mustbe some level of prompt (e.g., a prompt with intensity of 0.3 of fullintensity). If yes, stop training this sequence, if no, proceed to Step606.

Step 606. For response N in the sequence, present the programmedexternal stimuli and prompt stimuli. The agent will then emit aresponse.

Step 607. If the response was correct, go to Step 608; if not, go toStep 615.

Step 608. Reduce the strength of the prompt to response N programmed forthe next cycle. The amount of reduction possible can be estimated fromthe magnitude of difference between the output value of response N andthe output value of other responses. An approximate ratio can bedetermined from prior changes and their effects, which will differacross different agents.

Step 609. Deliver the programmed reinforcer.

Step 610. Determine if the net learning signal was positive? If yes, goto Step 611; if no, to Step 614.

Step 611. Check whether this is the first response in the sequence whichreceived an external reinforcer on this cycle AND the net learningsignal was too high (above a threshold defined as moderatereinforcement). If yes, go to Step 612, if no, go to Step 613.

Step 612. Reduce the value of the external reinforcer delivered to thisresponse. Depending on the system implementation, this may be doneimmediately, or it may require restarting training from a previouslystored state of the agent.

Step 613. Increment N by 1. If N now exceeds the length of the sequence,set N to 1 and return to step 605.

Step 614. Increase the value of the learning signal. If a later responsein the sequence (i.e., with index>N) received an external reinforcerwith value less than End Reinforcer on a previous training cycle,increasing the reinforcer value to that response at that time raises itsvalue on later cycles and thereby raises the transition value to theprior response. Since value changes pass backward in the sequence onlyone response per cycle, the change in reinforcer value must be made in aprior cycle within the number of steps by which the response followsresponse N. For example, increasing the value of response N+2 increasesthe transition value of response N+1 the next cycle and increases thetransition value of response N two cycles later. If no prior reinforcerevent meets this criterion, raise the value of reinforcers delivered toresponse N this cycle. As with Step 612, this may require restarting thetraining from an earlier stored state.

Step 615. If the erroneous response was not one of the responses in thesequence being trained, this is a heuristic threshold indicating thatthe prompt was too weak (see discussion above), so go to Step 616.Otherwise, go to Step 617.

Step 616. Increase the strength of the prompt to response N. As withsteps 612 and 614, this may require restarting the training from anearlier stored state.

Step 617. Deliver an external reinforcer value that produces a moderatenegative learning signal.

Step 618. Set a variable “Wrong R” to the index of the erroneousresponse (N). Then set N to 1.

Step 619. Present the stimulus and prompt for response N, as in Step616. The agent will then emit a response.

Step 620. Is the response correct? If yes, go to step 621; if no, go toStep 617.

Step 621. Is this response earlier in the sequence than the erroneousresponse (“Wrong R”)? If yes, continue the error correction loop (redostep 621); in no, return to the main training loop at step 611.

Step 622. Deliver an external reinforcer value that produces a smallpositive learning signal. This value may be less than programmed forthat response in the “correct” loop. The object is to comply with ageneral rule that the total value of reinforcers in any erroneoussequence should not exceed the total cost of responses, to avoid thepotential for “trapping” the agent in the error loop.

Step 623. Increment the index N by 1.

Following these rules blindly may require restarting the system manytimes. It should be feasible to automate the application of thesetraining rules by programming the computer to execute them. In addition,trainers can apply heuristics to enable prompt and reinforcement valuesto conform to these rules within an acceptable range of tolerance mostof the time. Applicant will not attempt to state heuristics here, asthey will necessarily vary depending on the neural network learningprocess used and various response parameters. Learning a new sequencemay have an interfering effect on the reliability of previously-learnedsequences, especially ones with similar elements and ones learned to aweak criterion. This is an apparently unavoidable property of adaptivesystems (including humans), which can be easily handled by reviewingprior sequences, especially the most similar ones (ones with the mostsequences in common).

These steps may be applied to a number of specific categories ofresponse sequences described subsequently, as follows.

Category: Tact (Process 302) Stimuli: External objects, properties, orevent sequence (e.g., red object, ball rolling) Responses: Conventionalverbal responses (e.g. “R”, “E”, “D”) Category: Intraverbal (Process304) Stimuli: Verbal stimuli. Can be same as Prompt stimuli. E.g., “Ifgreen square” Responses: First echo the verbal stimuli (preferable, notessential), then emit the dependent responses in the chain (e.g., echo“If green square”, then say “then move back”)

Category: Pliance (Process 303, part 1) Stimuli: Verbal command (e.g.“move back”) Responses: Conventional responses to comply with command(e.g., move back) Category: Self-pliance (Process 3, part 2) Stimuli:Verbal command (e.g., “move back”) Responses: First echo verbal command,then do conventional responses to comply with command (e.g., say “moveback” then move back) Category: Mand (step 603 in FIG. 6) Stimuli:Establishing operations to create deprived Primary Value State (e.g.,hunger) or situation (e.g., trainer asks agent to tighten a screw)Responses: Conventional verbal response to meet “need” (e.g., “food” or“screwdriver”) Note: The reinforcer for mands should be the object orresult specified by the mand

Category: Textual, reading (Extension of Process 304) Stimuli: Visual orelectronic array of verbal stimuli (e.g., lines of text) Responses:First, move visual receptors to beginning of text, then repeat analternating pattern of echoing (pronouncing) the text within the visualfield and moving visual receptors to the next position in text. Thesequence may be defined as single lines, or may be repeated until thebody of text has all been read.

Category: State implications (step 601 of FIG. 6) Stimuli: Verbalstatement, usually relational statement (e.g., “A>B”) Responses: Verbalresponses comprising statement implied by stimulus (e.g. say “B<A”). Ifvisual stimulus, response may include moving visual receptors as inTextual category

Category: Nonverbal behavior sequences Stimuli: Any situation Responses:Any response or sequence

Process 2 trains what Skinner (1957) has called “tacting”, which areverbal responses performed in the presence of theconventionally-appropriate nonverbal stimuli—for example, saying “RED”in the presence of a red object. Tacting is sometimes called “naming,”but tacts are often not “word” units and many are not “names”, such as afinal “-s” to denote plurality or present tense singular. Tacts also cutacross traditional linguistic distinctions; for example, in thedescriptive sentence “The red ball rolls across the room”, every elementmay be a tact since each is a response controlled by environmentalstimuli. Tact training is closest to what neural network researchershave called “categorization,” but it is different from what has usuallybeen done in not having uniquely-correct or mutually-exclusive“categories” for a given pattern, and usually having not one but asequence of outputs as the required behavior (e.g., the tact for rednesscould consist of three responses, printing “R”, printing “E”, andprinting “D”, in that order). Following the training in Process 1, tacttraining can now be done efficiently. The trainer first prepares a listof tacts that will be required for the system to effectively meetrequirements (though additional tacts can be trained at any later time).For each item the trainer should specify both the response sequence(e.g., print “R”, print “E”, print “D”) and the stimuli which shouldevoke that behavior (e.g., any object within a specified range of colorfrequency presented in the visual field). A set of training stimulishould then be created for each item, including both positive andnegative (i.e., not red) instances. The positive stimuli shouldadequately sample the range of properties defined for the tact whilevarying on irrelevant stimulus dimensions (e.g., vary size, shape, andbrightness of red objects). It is helpful to overrepresent examples withthe defining tact stimulus dimension having values outside butrelatively “close to” the correct range (e.g., orange vs. red), toenhance discrimination from similar tacts. A basic training procedurewill apply the General Training Strategy in FIG. 6. The trainer or CBTshould present the prepared instances of stimuli for each tact alongwith prompts for the correct responses for that object. For example, ifa minimal repertoire was trained with visual presentation of letters andprinted letter responses, then the trainer can present a red object plusprompts consisting of a visual “R” then a visual “E” then a visual “D”,to which the system will output “R”, “E”, “D”. Correct responses shouldbe followed by delivery of reinforcement. Preferably reinforcement fortacts should be a value whose magnitude does not depend on the currentPrimary Value state so as to avoid the response becoming dependent onthat state (e.g., use money which is always reinforcing because if foodwere used, the system might emit the tact only when hungry). The trainershould pseudorandomly mix training of various tacts (e.g., “red”,“blue”, etc.). Following FIG. 6, fade the intensity of the prompts asthe responses are learned so as to transfer the control of the responsesfrom the prompt stimuli to the tact stimuli (e.g., the redness), whilesimultaneously fading reinforcers.

This tact training will usually automatically produce more complexsystem capabilities, including metaphorical tacts (e.g., calling a wolfa dog when first encountered because it has some of the samecharacteristics) and metonymical tacts (e.g., saying “The White Housesaid . . . ” rather than “The President said”, where the response iscorrelated but irrelevant). When multiple tacts are performed in thesame situation, the issue of ordering or syntax is raised, such as “ared square”, not “a square red”; or “cat on table”, not “on cat table”.This kind of control was discussed by Skinner as “autoclitic”, in thiscase an autoclitic tact. Contrary to what Chomsky and generations oflinguists claimed about behavioral methods, the Applicant has shown thatthe System learns readily to emit the tacts in correct order, andgeneralizes its learning to completely novel combinations. The simpletacts should generally be taught first, then in conventional order withother tacts, building from simple to increasingly complex relations.

The tact training in Process 2 establishes connections fromenvironmental stimuli to verbal responses of the system—functionallyestablishing their “meaning” for the system. Process 3 establishes themeanings of a complementary kind of relationship with the environment,connecting verbal stimuli to the system's actions on its environment.For example, upon hearing “Move back” or “Say ‘Tree’”, the system willperform those (motor) actions with their environmental effects. It iscommonly known as “following instructions”, with the more precisetechnical name of “pliance” (Hayes, 1989).

Once again, the General Training Strategies in FIG. 6 provides the basicprocedures. The conventional verbal instructions to be learned should bepresented as stimuli, followed by prompts for the correct systemactions; then the prompts are faded to transfer control of the responsesfrom the prompts to the instructional stimuli while shifting reinforcerdelivery to a single final reinforcer. As with tacts, the trainingshould mix the various items in the list being trained.

A valuable technical procedure not in the prior art is that when theinstructional stimuli are presented, the system should be trained torepeat (technically, “echo” or duplicate) the verbal instructions (e.g.,say “Move back”). Only if the system echoes the instructions will itestablish internal connections for performing actions in response to itsown “internally-produced” instructional stimuli. That is, in addition toforming network connections from the external instructional stimuli tothe appropriate responses, new connections are formed between therecurrent stimuli of its own “echoic” responses (which “match” theexternal instructions) and the appropriate actions.

Echoing is relatively easy to implement if a minimal repertoire wastrained in Process 1 for the same input modality to be used here (e.g.,oral sounds, visual letters). If so, the system will already have astrong tendency to echo the instructions, so the trainer mainly needs tobe sure the training procedure provides for the echoed responses to bereinforced enough to maintain them (i.e., no strengthening needs tooccur for the echoic responses, so the value received only needs toequal the costs of the responses). Negative instructions can be learned.A stimulus of not, “˜”, or equivalent can be presented along with apliance stimulus; e.g., “not jump”. If the system performs the forbiddenresponse in the presence of “not”, the trainer delivers punishment. Thetrainer should present positive (“jump”) and negative (“not jump”)cases, applied in several different instructions, in pseudorandomalternation.

Process 4 corresponds to training the content of the “knowledge base” intraditional knowledge based systems (or more narrowly, the “rules” inexpert systems). The knowledge consists of verbal statements of rules orrelations, such as “If red light then stop” (alternatively, “Red lightimplies stop”), “The frog is on the log”, “The capital of Maryland isAnnapolis”, “2+2=4”. In the current system, that knowledge is learned bythe system by learning to repeat these statements. Because the systemlearns literal statements, it can learn any kind of statement. Then whatgives these statements functional meaning are the Processes 2 and 3, andany subsequent processes in Process 6. Note that it is quite possible—asit is for humans—to memorize statements before learning their meaning.Functional meaning is demonstrated by the system repeating thesestatements in appropriate circumstances, “reasoning from them, andultimately taking effective action based on the circumstances andknowledge.

The technical term for the behaviors in Process 4 is “intraverbal”behavior (Skinner, 1957), in which the stimulus for the verbal responseis itself verbal—spoken, written, sign language, even graphic—fromsomeone else or the agent itself. The trainer first identifies a list ofstatements to be trained and specifies which elements of each statementare completely determined by the earlier elements. For example, “4” isdetermined by “2+2=”. Simply saying “2” or “2+” underdetermines the restof the statement, though there will typically still be some influencefrom previous learning (in this case, probably the most common responseto the ambiguous 2+ would be 2).

For each statement, the object of this Process is to have the systemlearn to repeat the determined part of the statement without promptingafter hearing or saying the initial parts of the statement. As with theother Processes, the value of saying each response in the statementshould at the end of training be maintained by value received only afterrepeating the entire statement. The General Training Strategy of FIG. 6provides the basic procedure. The prompts for the determined intraverbalelements (e.g. “then stop” after saying “If red light”) can ultimatelybe faded to zero value, but logically the prompts for the early,nondependent elements of the statement must have at least a minimumvalue, such as 30% of full intensity.

A simply extension to this procedure is for the agent to read thestatements from passive textual material rather than hearing them.Reading requires very precisely-controlled sequencing of motor actions(moving the eyes and/or head) with the verbal responses of saying thesounds that are seen. Applicant has trained the system to read textualmaterial in this way. Applicant used a Texas Instruments 486/25 PC,running DOS™ 6.22, Windows™ for Workgroups 3.11 and Visual Smalltalk™Version 3.0 from Digitalk. The training stimuli consisted of simulatedvisual presentation of lines of text. The responses consisted of, first,moving visual receptors to beginning of text, then repeating analternating pattern of echoing (pronouncing) the text within the visualfield and moving visual receptors to the next position in text. Newlines of text were repeatedly presented. After approximately 20 lines ofpractice, the agent learned to perform the sequence perfectly.

A further extension of this Process is to train minimal intraverbals orautoclitic frames, where part of the statement is determinedintraverbally as above and part of the statement is variable, controlledby other variables. For example, “He calls Joe up”, “He calls the olddoctor up”, where “up” is intraverbally controlled by “call” and theintervening “Joe” or “the old doctor” is controlled by immediateenvironmental stimuli. The nature of this task is basically the same asin reading text and could be implemented in similar fashion by oneskilled in the art.

The four Processes described are adequate to produce a device which canfollow direct IF—THEN rules of an expert system (FIG. 3 #5). TheCondition of the rule can be a verbal stimulus presented by the user oran external stimulus in the environment which the system has beentrained to tact (e.g., present a yellow triangle after training a rule“If yellow triangle . . . ”). The Action of the rule can be any actionfor which the system has been trained to self-ply.

The prior training also produces simple logical operations. For example,the Applicant has shown that is the system has learned the statement “Aimplies B” and the statement “B implies ”C, then upon presenting thestimulus “A”, the system will complete the first statement “implies B”and thereafter chain to the second statement to “conclude” C.

The autonomous agent was first trained in a minimal repertoire followingProcess 1 and FIG. 5. Then the system was trained to tact object shapes(circles, triangles, and squares, with tacts “C”, “T”, and “S”) byProcess 2, with simulated visual stimuli presented in the middle of thevisual presentation field. Then the system was trained to tact objectcolors (green, blue, and yellow, with tacts “G”, “U”, and “Y”) byProcess 2, with simulated visual stimuli presented in the middle of thevisual presentation field. Then the system was trained to tact objectswith combinations of already-trained colors and shapes, with the correctresponse being to tact the color first, then the shape (e.g., yellowtriangle). Only eight of the nine combinations were trained, leavingyellow circles for later testing of generalization. Then the system wastrained by Process 4 to memorize a rule “If yellow circle then moveforward”, which was “I Y C T M F” in the simplified language used. Thenthe system was trained by Process 3 to comply with its own verbalinstructions; specifically it learned to say Move Forward (“M F”) andthen to emit a simulated forward movement. At the conclusion oftraining, a test was given by presenting a simulated yellow circle inthe center of the visual presentation field. The agent correctly tactedthe object in the correct word order even though it had never seen ayellow circle before, and many other training trials had been givensince tact training. Note that this part of the experiment supports theclaim in the description of Process 2 regarding the agent's ability tolearn proper word order and use it in novel situations. Then withoutfurther stimulation, the agent stated the rest of the associated rule,“T M F” (then move forward). Finally, it complied with the actionprescribed in the rule by moving forward in the simulation.

Code provided as Exhibit A to this application implements the experimentdescribed above. By extension, it is possible to train multiple rules atthe same time.

Several extensions are possible using the above techniques. 1. Train thesystem to emit statements “implied” by a stimulus statement. Forexample, hear “A>C” and say “C<A”.

2. Train the system to combine relational statements: present pairs ofstatements, prompt and reinforce implied responses (e.g., present A>Band B=C, then prompt and reinforce A>C). The system will learn both thegeneralized responses of combining these relations and the specificfacts of the examples.

3. Train the system to mand, which are verbal responses followed byconsequences whose form they “specify” (e.g., saying “Food” as a requestfor food rather than as a tact for food that is present). To train mandsfor primary values, vary the system's state of those values (deprive thesystem of food or artificially change the parameter for food deprivationin the system) and train the system to emit mand responses for thosevalues (using prompts and fading as with tact training). For secondaryvalues such as objects or information needed to accomplish an activegoal (e.g., requesting a screwdriver when told to tighten a screw;requesting someone's name when asked to make them a name tag), thetrainer can perform the corresponding “establishing operations” (e.g.,tell the agent to tighten a screw) and train appropriate behaviors. Notethat this corresponds to backward-chained/goal-directed reasoning inExpert Systems, which in those systems must be programmed, not taught.

Thus, there has been described a novel Adaptive Autonomous Agent withVerbal Learning that has a number of novel features and advantages, anda manner of making and using the invention. While specific embodimentsof the invention have been shown and described in detail to illustratethe application of the principles of the invention, it will beunderstood that the invention may be embodied otherwise withoutdeparting from such principles and that various modifications, alternateconstructions, and equivalents will occur to those skilled in the artgiven the benefit of this disclosure. Thus, the invention is not limitedto the specific embodiment described herein, but is defined by theappended claims.

1. An artificial adaptive agent having a plurality of input nodes forreceiving input signals and a plurality of output nodes of generatingoutput signals wherein the output signals are trained responses to theinput signals, the agent comprising: a primary value register forstoring one or more primary values; means for adjusting the primaryvalues based upon the responses each time the responses change; andsensors coupled to sense the primary values and having sensor outputscoupled to some of the input nodes of the agent.
 2. The agent of claim 1wherein the means for adjusting comprises: means for determining a costof each response with respect to each primary value; means fordetermining a benefit of each response with respect to each primaryvalue; and means for decrementing the current primary value by thedetermined cost and incrementing the current primary value by thedetermined benefit each time a response is generated by the agent.
 3. Amethod of training an artificial neural network (ANN) comprising thesteps of: designating a first output node of the ANN as a actuatoroutput wherein a preselected signal on the actuator output is capable ofcausing a desired action; designating a second output node of the ANN asa verbal output wherein a preselected series of signals on the verbaloutput corresponds to a verbal representation of the desired action;supplying prompts to input nodes of the ANN; and training the ANN toproduce the preselected series of signals on the verbal output beforeproducing the preselected signal on the actuator output.
 4. The methodof claim 3 further comprising: coupling the verbal output to an inputnode of the ANN.
 5. The method of claim 3 wherein the prompts suppliedto the input nodes comprise the preselected series of signalscorresponding to the verbal representation of the desired action, andthe step of training comprises training the ANN to echo the preselectedseries of signals presented to the input node at the verbal output. 6.An adaptive autonomous agent with verbal learning comprising: anartificial neural network having verbal input nodes for receiving verbalinformation, verbal output nodes for expressing verbal information, andactuator output nodes for indicating an action wherein the agentresponds to verbal information on the verbal input nodes by generating asignal on the actuator output nodes and generating a verbal response onthe verbal output nodes such that the verbal response is a symbolicrepresentation of the action indicated by the actuator output nodes. 7.An adaptive autonomous agent comprising: a neural network having aplurality of network inputs; sensors connected to said network inputs; afirst network output; actuators connected to said network output; meansfor sensing a current state of said actuators; at least one verbalnetwork output; training means for establishing sets of connections fromthe inputs to the network output.